Contents
Purpose of this page
On the day that World War II broke out, Barnes Wallis asked himself what
he, as an engineer and aircraft designer, could do to shorten the war.
Over the next six years, he worked on a variety of aircraft and weapons,
and while the magnitude of his contribution is impossible to measure
in isolation, shorten it he surely did. The goals he set himself were variously
described as "mad", "crackpot", "freak", "crazy" and "far-fetched", yet
his tenacity saw them through development, and the quality of his engineering
was demonstrated again and again as his special weapons performed exactly
as he predicted.
This page is intended as a tribute to the ingenuity, engineering skill
and perseverance of Barnes Wallis, and to inform about some of the details
of his special weapons and the Vickers Windsor bomber.
This picture shows Tallboy (left), Upkeep (middle) and Grand Slam (right) on
display at RAF Lossiemouth, current home to 617 Squadron. My thanks to James
Bissett for permission to use his picture; he is the figure which gives scale
to the weapons (click picture for larger version).
Introduction
Even before the Second World War had begun, the Air Ministry and various
individuals were investigating possible bombing targets within Germany.
However, most targets were effectively protected by dispersal, that is
that they covered a wide area and it was thus difficult to destroy them
completely (and as late as 1941, less than 10% of bombs were falling within
5 miles of their targets, although numerous navigation aids and bombsights
were introduced which improved matters considerably as the war progressed).
Wallis focussed his thinking on destroying targets which could not be dispersed
- "highly localised stores of energy in the form of coal, oil and water
power", especially dams, and in particular the great dams of the Ruhr area
(the Möhne, Sorpe, Eder and several others). These targets were particularly
attractive for several reasons:
-
they could not be moved, and their location was known
-
great damage would be caused by the flow of water when the dam was broken
-
massive flooding would be caused to mines, steelworks and other industries
by the released water
-
the loss of water would disrupt steel production and hydro-electric generation,
as well as causing problems with supplies for canals and drinking
However, the problem posed was that the dams were so massive that the armaments
of the time (mostly 500lb bombs and (from 1940) 1000lb general-purpose
bombs) would simply not touch them.
Wallis' main concept developed for these targets was the "big bomb",
a ten-ton weapon carried by a huge six-engined "Victory bomber" - dropped
from 40,000ft, the bomb would penetrate deep into the ground, and the shock
wave caused by the huge explosion would act like an earthquake and simply
shake the target to pieces (and a direct hit was not necessary). However,
at the time of his proposal (finalised in a paper in March 1941), the RAF
had only just begun using 4-engined bombers (most of their bombers had
only 2 engines), and the idea of carrying a ten-ton bomb up to 40,000ft
seemed like pure fantasy, so his proposals for the bomber and the bomb
were quickly rejected by the Air Ministry (despite Wallis' excellent credentials
as an aircraft engineer).
Meanwhile, ongoing experiments on the amount of explosives needed to
break
a dam wall (mostly performed without Wallis' involvement) had found that
while significant quantities (30,000lbs - 14 tons) were needed if the explosion
was tens of feet away from the dam, as little as 6,500lbs (under 3 tons)
would be sufficient if the explosion took place in contact with the wall.
Several 1/50th models and an unused dam at Nant-y-Gro in Wales were destroyed
in arriving at this conclusion.
Upkeep and Highball - the "bouncing bombs"
Early in 1942, Wallis had the idea of "a missile" which would be dropped
upstream of a dam, ricochet over the water in a series of bounces, and
hit the dam - this offered two significant advantages: it would jump over
anti-torpedo nets strung ahead of the dam wall, and would sink right up
against the dam (the perfect location, as revealed by the earlier tests).
Some initial tests led him to develop a spherical bomb, and full-scale
test drops of this design began at Chesil Beach in September 1942 using
a modified Wellington bomber. Persuaded by Wallis and films of the test
drops, officials gave the go-ahead for further tests which led to the development
of two separate variants of the "bouncing bomb" idea - a large cylindrical
mine (codenamed
Upkeep) to be carried by the new Lancaster for use
against dams (Wallis was confident that if
one mine could be dropped
in the right place, a dam could be breached) and a smaller spherical mine
(codenamed
Highball) to be carried by Mosquitoes for use against
capital ships, such as the
Tirpitz. A variety of shapes, drop heights
and backspin rotation speeds were tested at Chesil Beach, Reculver in Kent
and Loch Striven in Scotland (Highball) - Upkeep proved satisfactory, although
Highball was found to be less accurate after release. Colloquially referred to
as "bombs", Upkeep and Highball were officially described as "mines" (as they
were to detonate in water), and technically were "depth charges" (as they were
to explode at a set depth). The example recovered by the Germans was described
in their documentation as "Rotations-Wasserbombe", a "rotating depth charge",
which is as accurate a description as you will get!
This picture shows the author with a trial Upkeep on
display at the Barnes Wallis Collection within the
Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington
Thanks to Peter Rix of the Barnes Wallis Memorial Trust for permission to use
this photograph.
The Dams Raid "Operation Chastise" - May 1943
By early 1943, the best time to hit the dams (when they were full after
the Spring rains) was approaching, and on 26th February
1 it
was decided to mount a dams raid using Upkeep (Highball development continued
but was scaled down). Twenty-three Lancasters were modified to carry the Upkeep
mine, and 617 Squadron was formed to perform the mission. On 16th May 1943
(the night of a full moon), 19 Lancasters of 617 Squadron under Wing Commander
Guy Gibson took off from RAF Scampton (Lincolnshire) in three waves to
attack the Möhne, Eder and Sorpe Dams.
Möhne Dam: After a dummy run over the dam to check out
the approach and defences, Gibson (AJ-G) dropped the first Upkeep, but
his mine detonated too far from the dam. Hopgood (AJ-M) then attacked,
but was hit by flak during his approach, and the mine was dropped late
- it bounced over the dam, and detonated on the power station below the
dam; Hopgood's aircraft gained some height before exploding, but two of
the crew did manage to escape, although they were seriously injured and
became POWs. Martin (AJ-P) then attacked, but his Upkeep veered to the
left and exploded 20 yards from the dam. Young (AJ-A) then attacked, and
after three bounces, his Upkeep mine exploded in contact with the wall.
Maltby (AJ-J) then came in to attack, but as his Upkeep was dropped, it
was realised that the dam was already crumbling. His mine also exploded
in contact with the wall, and together with Young's, a breach 76m wide
was created. Young was unfortunately shot down on his way home (the third
time he had come down in the sea, but he did not survive this time).
Eder Dam: Gibson and Young flew on to the Eder with the three aircraft
that still had their mines, while Martin and Maltby headed for home. After
locating the dam, Shannon (AJ-L) made four passes over it, the steep dive
and turn required to line up with the target proving difficult (the mine
was not to be dropped unless the bomb aimer was happy with the approach).
Maudslay (AJ-Z) tried twice, then Shannon twice more before releasing his
mine, which exploded close to the dam towards one end. Maudslay attacked
again, this time releasing his mine, but it hit the parapet of the dam
and exploded; it seems probable that the explosion damaged the aircraft,
as there was no further radio communication from Maudslay, and his aircraft
was brought down near the Dutch border on its way home. Knight (AJ-N) made
one dummy run, releasing his mine on the second; it bounced three times
before hitting the dam, and punched a hole about 30 feet in diameter through
the masonry, although the flow of water quickly widened the breach to around
70m.
Sorpe Dam: Unlike the Möhne and Eder Dams which were walled
dams, the Sorpe was constructed of a concrete core flanked by earth banking
on both sides. Different tactics were thus employed against the dam, which
was to be attacked along its crest, and the mine dropped without spin.
McCarthy (flying AJ-T as his own AJ-Q had developed a fault immediately
before the mission) made the first attack, making nine dummy runs as the
target was covered in mist; on the tenth run, the mine was dropped and
exploded on the dam crest. Brown (AJ-F) also made several dummy runs, dropping
his mine on the sixth run. It also exploded on target, but although the
crest was damaged, the dam was not breached and no seepage through the
core (as hoped for) resulted. The damage to the crown of the dam, however,
required the Germans to half empty the reservoir to effect repairs, so there
was some water loss as a result of the attack
9. Some sources
11
state that AJ-F attacked at right angles to the dam, but this appears to be
incorrect (a diagram by AJ-F's bomb aimer
5 shows an attack along the
crest like AJ-T).
Other dams: Several other dams in the Ruhr area (Lister, Ennepe,
Diemel, Henne) were reserve targets for the raid, to be attacked by remaining
aircraft if the main targets were destroyed. Townsend (AJ-O) was diverted
to attack the Ennepe; on the fourth run, the Upkeep was dropped, but it
exploded short of the dam. It was subsequently established
5 that it
was the Bever Dam which had been attacked (the Bever reservoir was a similar shape
to the Ennepe and only five miles away), but as the aiming sights were
set for the Ennepe, a hit would have been impossible (also, the Bever dam was
an earth-bank dam like the Sorpe, rather than a walled gravity dam), although
there remains some uncertainty
11 about which dam was attacked (a bomb
was dropped in the Bever reservoir that night, but by a Mosquito
according to witnesses
11).
Other aircraft: Although only one Lancaster was shot down during
the actual dam attacks, aircraft flown by Astell (AJ-B), Byers (AJ-K),
Ottley (AJ-C), Burpee (AJ-S) and Barlow (AJ-E) were brought down en route
(Barlow's Upkeep was retrieved intact by the Germans); one member of Ottley's
crew survived the crash. In addition, Munro (AJ-W) turned back after suffering
severe flak damage crossing the Dutch islands, and in the same area Rice
(AJ-H) flew too low and his mine was torn off by the sea; he managed to
regain height and return safely to Scampton with a somewhat shaken (and
wet) crew! Finally, Anderson (AJ-Y) made it to the Ruhr, but was unable
to locate any targets, and returned home with his mine (Gibson was somewhat
displeased with this).
It is common to see in prints etc. the height spotlamps
shining vertically down underneath the Lancasters - however, the crew would not
have been able to see them there, and they were actually angled out to the side
so that the spots were under the starboard wing, as this scale diagram shows.
Aftermath: The result of Operation Chastise, its impact on the
war and its cost in terms of lost aircraft and men (out of 19 aircraft,
8 were lost and 53 of the 56 crew in those aircraft were killed) has been the subject of
much controversy. Typical Bomber Command raids of the time were experiencing losses
around 5% of aircraft despatched (often not hitting their targets!), and Operation Chastise was well above this;
however, its losses were not directly attributable to Upkeep (only one aircraft was
lost in the actual dams attacks), but more to the low-level approach and bad luck.
The propaganda benefits to Britain, and the corresponding damage to morale
in Germany, were not insignificant.
It is clear, however, that the raid was a great technical
success, and achieved its principal aims. Two dams were destroyed (more
than 116 million m3 of water was released from the Möhne reservoir, 154 million m3
from the Eder), causing widespread damage and destruction up to 100 miles
away. 25 bridges were destroyed (plus 21 damaged), 11 factories were destroyed
(plus 14 damaged), and many coal mines, waterworks, pumping stations and power
stations were destroyed or put out of action (many were
operational again within weeks or months, and the dams were both rebuilt
during 1943, though this in turn caused a large diversion of manpower).
Casualties on the ground were around 1300, more than half of whom were foreign
labourers, many housed in barracks a few miles below the Möhne Dam; there were
also losses of livestock and agricultural land.
Wallis was vindicated - Upkeep had been able to destroy the
huge dams, and (although five mines were dropped against the Möhne,
and three against the Eder) it was the first mine to be dropped in the
right place that had broken the dam in each case. Air Chief Marshall Arthur
"Bomber" Harris was also delighted ... and told Wallis "you could sell
me a pink elephant". And so Wallis turned his attention back to the big
bombs ...
The Big Bombs - Tallboy
Meanwhile 617 Squadron, still a special operations squadron, were becoming
experts in accurate bombing from great height, but paradoxically found
the problem was difficulty in
marking targets effectively at low level.
This was eventually solved by dive bombing markers into place using Lancasters
and later Mosquitoes and even Mustangs. They had been using 8,000lb "blockbuster"
and 12,000lb blast bombs, but these were found to be only effective through
direct hits. The Antheor viaduct in southern France was attacked in 3 separate
raids, the last placing 12,000 pounders within 5 yards ... yet the viaduct
was not seriously damaged. The Dortmund-Ems canal was also attacked unsuccessfully
using 12,000lb blast bombs. The need for Wallis' earthquake bomb was confirmed!
During 1943, Wallis continued developing plans for his 10-ton bomb,
and an order was placed for them in August for expected delivery in January
1944. However, following the attack on the V-weapon complex at Peenemünde
on 17th August 1943
4, the Air Ministry decided that the ten-tonner
was no longer needed
1. Wallis managed to get them to agree to
a 6-tonner, which would also be easier to develop - this was the 12,000lb
deep penetration bomb codenamed
Tallboy (it appears this name originated
in the Air Ministry).
This picture shows a genuine Tallboy (and short girl!) on
display at the Barnes Wallis Collection within the
Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington
Thanks to Peter Rix of the
Barnes Wallis Memorial Trust for permission to use
this photograph.
Tallboy's sleek shape enabled it to gain as much speed as possible
during its fall, giving maximum penetration into the ground which was essential
to maximise the earthquake effect. This speed also gave rise to a couple
of problems with the design. Firstly, the ground impact at high speed meant
that the casing had to be very strong to prevent it bursting open, and
special metals were developed for this purpose; the weight of the case
was thus a high proportion of the weight of the bomb so, despite its size,
it was classed as a "medium capacity" weapon! Secondly, during trials,
it was found to be inaccurate, and this was attributed to the bomb "toppling"
off course as it passed through the sound barrier. Wallis solved this problem
rather neatly by offsetting the bomb's tailfins; this made the bomb spin
as it fell, and the gyroscopic effect prevented the toppling and thus
maintained the accuracy.
This picture shows the Tallboy tail-on - note the offset
fins which made the bomb spin as it fell, stabilising it for passing the sound
barrier.
Thanks to Peter Rix of the Barnes Wallis Memorial Trust for permission to use
this photograph.
Lack of ground penetration was a potential problem, as the bomb was originally
intended to be dropped from 40,000ft, but the specially modified Lancasters
could only carry it up to a maximum of 25,000ft; however, in practice this
was found not to be a serious problem.
Tallboy was 21' in length, with a diameter of 3'8" overall (the bomb body itself
was 10'4" long and 3'2" in diameter). It weighed a total of 11,855lbs, of which
5,200 was Torpex D1 explosive. The size of the bomb required special bomb bay doors
to be fitted to the Lancasters.
The first Tallboys were dropped on 8th June 1944
1 on the
Saumur railway tunnel in the Loire Valley; the tunnel roof was caved in,
blocking this resupply route to the German front line against the invasion.
Invasion forces were being harassed by night attacks from E-boats out of
Le Havre, so the second Tallboy raid on 14th June was mounted on the Le
Havre docks as the E-boats were gathering to depart. A similar attack was
mounted at Boulogne the next day, and between these two raids, over 100
vessels were destroyed, some flung up onto the quayside
1. On
June 16th, V1 "flying bombs" began falling on London, and bombing efforts
switched to the launch sites of these weapons.
Over the next six months, over 700 Tallboys were dropped (mostly, but
not exclusively, by 617 Squadron). It was used against a variety of targets
including:
-
V-weapon sites - V1 and V2 launch sites and the V3 (giant gun) blockhouses:
the latter were never used due to the damage caused
-
U-boat pens
-
the battleship Tirpitz (which attracted 76 Tallboys during three separate
attacks, the first of which damaged her (though this was not appreciated
at the time) and the last of which sank her) and heavy cruiser Lützow (which
was also sunk)
Most interestingly, the bomb was used against dams (one of the principal
targets for the big bombs from their inception, of course). The Kembs Barrage
in Alsace (part of the Rhine canal system) was successfully breached on
7th October 1944, thus preventing the Germans using it to flood U.S. troops
approaching from Belfort. Uniquely on this raid, the Tallboys were dropped
at low level for accurate positioning; use of Upkeep again would have been
more appropriate, but the Lancasters had long been returned to normal specification
and there was not time to re-modify aircraft and train the new crews for
delivery of the weapon. The Sorpe Dam was also attacked with Tallboys (by 9
Squadron conventionally
from 14,000ft) on 15th October 1944 and hit by 2 Tallboys but not breached (one
Tallboy was found in the mud when the dam was partially drained in 1958 and successfully
defused).
Raids were also mounted against the Urft Dam, 30 miles SW of Cologne, on
the 3rd
7, 8th and 11th December 1944
2, again to prevent
it being used to flood troops, and the lip of the dam was damaged, but the Germans
prevented further damage by lowering the water level
8.
Tallboy was thus highly successful, and Wallis' original idea (using a large
underground explosion to create an earthquake effect) was again
vindicated in practice. Its successful use against the U-boat pens and
V-weapon blockhouses was significant - curiously, these targets did not
exist when Wallis conceived his big bombs, and yet they were the only type
of weapon that would have been effective against them.
The Big Bombs - Grand Slam
The successful use of Tallboy led to the Ministry of Aircraft Production
giving the go-ahead on 12th July 1944
1 for the production of
a larger (22,000lb) variant, codenamed
Grand Slam, for delivery
in early 1945
1 (development had earlier been put on hold while
efforts were concentrated on Tallboy) - this was the ten-ton deep penetration
bomb conceived by Wallis five years earlier. Its greater size required
further development of the special steel alloy for the casing, and meant
that few places could machine the casing (it took two days for the initial
casting to cool sufficiently for machining)! Although on paper well above
the maximum load for a Lancaster, special modifications including the removal
of gun turrets allowed the aircraft to carry Grand Slam up to the required
25,000 ft drop height (its greater size meant also that the Lancasters'
bomb bay doors had to be removed entirely).
Its first use was against the Bielefeld Viaduct - 3,000 tons of bombs (including
Tallboys) had already been dropped on it with little result, but Grand Slam
brought it down on 14th March 1945
4 (the
first Grand Slam had been test dropped in the New Forest the day before). Grand Slam was used against
similar targets to Tallboy (often a raid would include both types of bomb),
and again caused remarkable destruction wherever it was used - the Arnsberg, Arbergen, Neinburg and other bridges were also to be felled by the bomb.
In total, 41 Grand Slams were dropped during the war. Photo reconnaissance
records were kept of Tallboy and Grand Slam attacks, any major bombing
errors being investigated (presumably due to the cost of the weapons). A
contemporary
newsreel shows the bomb being loaded and dropped at Arnsberg (this footage
is often misquoted in more recent documentaries as being of the raid at
Bielefeld).
Further variants and experiments with Wallis' special
weapons
Although it was highly successful in Operation Chastise, Upkeep was never
used again in warfare. There were plans to use it against the Modane Dam
in Italy (north of Rome), and 617 Squadron performed training for the difficult
approach to this dam. However, the raid was cancelled on 20th January 1944,
the day that one of 617's crews was killed during the training
1.
Experiments were also conducted dropping Upkeep (unspun) on land, principally
for use against the Dortmund-Ems canal, but these experiments came to nothing.
Highball, which was initially developed alongside Upkeep, continued
in development, and most of its problems were eventually ironed out (the
bouncing bomb clips in "The Dam Busters" film are actually archive shots
of Highball drop tests on Loch Striven). 618 Squadron (which had been formed
to use Highball) were even sent to Australia with a view to dropping it
against Japanese capital ships in the Pacific but again, despite practice
missions being undertaken, the mines were not used offensively.
The Americans also tested Highball under the codename
Speedee using a
Douglas A-26 Invader, but during one of the tests, the bomb rebounded and hit the dropping aircraft
causing it to crash.
The Upkeep retrieved by the Germans from the Operation Chastise crash
allowed them to quickly develop a specification for the weapon, and from
this they developed their own spherical bouncing bomb, codenamed
Kurt.
It used a rocket motor for additional speed after dropping, but it suffered
the same teething problems as Highball and these had not been rectified by
the end of the war.
The Americans were also producing Tallboys and Grand Slams by early 1945 (originally 400 were ordered from
the UK and 200 from the US)
1. There were plans to send 617 Squadron
to the Pacific to use Tallboy and Grand Slam against targets in Japan,
but in August 1945, bombs of far greater power brought the war to a close
(these were dropped with an average error of 300 yards, which was laughable
compared to the accuracy achieved by 617 Squadron by that time, although
this was of little consequence)! After the war, bomb penetration tests
with Tallboy and Grand Slam were conducted at Watten and the U-boat pens.
Grand Slams were also carried experimentally by American B-29s (Operation
Ruby) either with the bomb bay doors removed, or slung under the wings.
The Americans favoured development of a 4,500 lb rocket assisted bomb to
achieve greater penetration by force rather than by weight alone, although they
did also develop their own 44,000lb version of the earthquake bomb, the
T12 - this was
tested using a B-29, but it could
barely get off the ground with it (even with a light fuel load)
Wallis himself was one of the first civilians to visit the continent
as Allied forces advanced - he visited the U-boat pens in early April 1945
4
to see what his big bombs had done to them, and later that month visited
the Ruhr dams, where he was keen to see the damage caused and ask about
the raid.
The Vickers Windsor
Meanwhile, Wallis' Victory bomber almost became reality in the shape of
the Vickers Windsor - aircraft design was, after all, his "day job" and
his special weapons work was over and above his aircraft work at Vickers
(Wallis designed principally the internal geodetic structure, R.K. Pierson
designing the rest of the aircraft). After the successful use of geodetic
construction (rather than conventional struts and frames) in the R100 airship,
and subsequently the Wellesley and Wellington bombers, Wallis developed
the Warwick as successor to the Wellington. However, the intended engines
were delayed in development, and the aircraft was unsuccessful, being produced
in small numbers and mostly used by Coastal Command. From the two-engined
Warwick and his plans for a six-engined Victory Bomber, Wallis developed
the Windsor to specifications B5/41 and later B3/42 as a four-engined bomber,
employing the same geodetic form of construction employed in the earlier
aircraft. The plane, powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlins (Griffon or
Clyde engines could also have been used), had a length of 76'10", wingspan of 117'2" and gross weight
of 54,000lbs. It had a maximum speed of 317mph and ceiling of 27,250ft.
Although not a particularly pretty aircraft, it had some notable features
- the undercarriage was unusual (a single balloon tyre beneath each engine)
as was the defensive armament, consisting of two 0.5" or 20mm guns mounted
on the rear of each outboard engine, and operated remotely by a gunner
in the rear of the aircraft. Three aircraft flew (DW506, DW512 and NK136
6)
though none on active service
4 (DW506 first flew in October
6
or November
3 1943 and DW512 on 5th February 1944
6).
Orders were placed for 300 aircraft on 2nd June 1943
3, but by
the time the aircraft was ready, the uprated Lancasters were already offering
a performance similar to the Windsor's theoretical performance (2,900 mile
range with 8,000lb load) and, at the end of the war, Windsor orders were
first reduced then cancelled altogether. Plans to use it against the Japanese
3
and develop it for civil aviation
4 were dropped, though it remains
the largest and most complex fixed-wing aircraft of geodetic construction
ever built.
Can you help with more information?
If you have any information on any of the following (or can point me towards references
where I can find it), please
contact me
! Many thanks!
-
Photos of any of the dams (other than the Möhne, Eder and Sorpe) attacked by Wallis
weapons (especially the Kembs and Urft dams)
-
Photos of any of the other targets attacked by Wallis weapons (especially V-weapon sites)
-
Morpurgo4 states that although "... naval fliers were now free to use the smaller spherical
bomb against enemy merchantmen and did so with vigour and success ...", suggesting that Highball
was actually used in action - if anyone can offer any supporting evidence for this,
I'd like to see it!
-
Highball was tested on Loch Striven by 618 Squadron, based at RAF Turnberry - if anyone has any
information relating to this, please let me know (my thanks to those who have
responded already)
-
Can anyone confirm or deny a rumour that Upkeep (and/or Highball) was tested on Loch Ness?
I suspect that this did not happen, although 617 Squadron did overfly Loch Ness
during navigation training for Operation Chastise
-
Can anyone confirm or deny a rumour that Morris's Furniture in Glasgow was involved in making
prototype versions of some of the Wallis weapons?
-
Does anyone know what happened to the Upkeep that was recovered from Barlow's
crashed aircraft?
-
Does anyone know what happened to the Tallboy that was recovered from the Sorpe
reservoir in the 1950s?
Thanks for any help with these queries!
My thanks to Nathan Flavell and Erik Gol for sending me a copy of the 1976
Airfix Magazine article about the Highball Mosquito.
References
1.
The Dam Busters, Paul Brickhill, Evans War Classics Edition,
1966 (originally published 1951: this book, although considered the definitive
story of the dams raid (and main inspiration for the 1953 feature film)
and exploits of 617 squadron, was published while many of the details of
the raid and weapons were still secret - thus, while it contains the essence
of the story, many details are omitted or simplified).
2.
Armament Volume 1: Bombs and Bombing Equipment, Air
Ministry, 1952.
3.
Vickers: A History, J. D. Scott, 1962 (Weidenfeld
and Nicolson).
4.
Barnes Wallis: A Biography, J.E. Morpurgo, 1972
(Longmans).
5.
The Dambusters Raid, John Sweetman, Cassell Military
Classics, 1999 (originally published 1982: the 1999 revised edition includes
a new appendix presenting up-to-date evidence and analysis).
6. Instructions for Vickers Windsor kit, Sanger Engineering, Bristol.
7. Various Internet sources.
8.
From the Dams to the Tirpitz, Alan W. Cooper, 1982
(Goodall).
9.
The Men Who Breached the Dams, Alan W. Cooper, 1982
(Kimber).
10.
Enemy Coast Ahead, Guy P. Gibson, 1946
(Michael Joseph). [ Written in 1944 and published after Gibson's death ]
11.
The Dams Raid Through the Lens, Helmuth Euler, 2001
(After the Battle).
My thanks also to H.R. Black for useful discussions and for making
available papers relating to this topic, and to Alan Cooper for further
discussions of some points raised in his books.
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